Name : Liska Nurwulansari
NPM : 12609804
Class : 4SA02
The Elements of Culture
- Language.
- Language is a set of symbols used to assign and
communicate meaning. It enables us to name or label the things in our
world so we can think and communicate about them.
- Language as a social product.
- Language, communication and interaction.
- Language, cognition, and reality.
- Language and culture.
- Norms.
- Norms as humanly created rules for behavior.
- The production of norms.
- The need for orderly,
stable, predictable interactions.
- The role of power in the
production of norms.
- The reification of norms.
- Renegotiating and changing
norms.
- Types of norms.
- Folkways.
- Mores.
- Taboos.
- Rituals.
- Social Control.
- Internal social control.
- Socialization and the
internalization of norms.
- Ideologies, beliefs, and
values.
- External social control.
- Informal sanctions.
- Physical and verbal
reactions.
- Embarrassment and stigma.
- Avoidance and
ostracization.
- The importance of informal
sanctions in small groups and organizations.
- Formal sanctions.
- Formal sanctions in large
organizations.
- Governments, laws, and
police.
- Courts, hearings, trials,
and punishments.
- Theories of deviance.
- Deviance as functional.
- Social disorganization and
anomie.
- Control theory.
- Structural strain theory.
- Marxist theories.
- Value conflict theory.
- The social construction of
deviance.
- Labeling theory.
- Cultural transmission and
differential association.
- Values.
- Values are anything members of a culture aspire to or
hold in high esteem. Values are things to be achieved, things considered
of great worth or value.
- Values are human creations.
They are social products.
- Values can and do become
reified.
- Values can be renegotiated
and changed.
- While people and groups may disagree as to which are
most important, Americans generally value the following.
- Democracy, liberty, freedom,
independence, autonomy, and individual rights.
- Capitalism, competition, hard
work, self-discipline, and success.
- Wealth, prosperity,
materialism, and consumerism.
- Equity, fairness, and
justice.
- Equality of opportunity.
- Love, compassion,
humanitarianism, charity, service, and respect for others.
- Tolerance, forgiveness, and
acceptance.
- Faith, religion, family,
conformity, and tradition.
- Nationalism, patriotism,
civic responsibility, and loyalty.
- Health, happiness, and life.
- Education, knowledge,
science, technology, and innovation.
- Complimentary and conflicting values.
- A groups values tend to
compliment and support one another. They tend to be in agreement and
make sense when considered together. A careful look at the values above
reveals “sets” of values that seem to go together.
- However, it is also possible
for values to contradict and conflict with each other, especially in
complex modern industrial societies. For example, competition and
success can be seen as contradictory to humanitarianism, compassion,
service and self-sacrafice; while equity and justice contradict
forgiveness and conformity and tradition contradict tolerance and
acceptance.
- In fact, many social and
political problems can be seen as conflicts between groups emphasizing
different values.
- The relationship between norms and values.
- Beliefs and ideologies.
- Beliefs are the things members of a culture hold to be
true. They are the "facts" accepted by all or most members.
Beliefs are not limited to religious statements, but include all the
things a people know and accept as true, including common sense everyday
knowledge.
- Like all other cultural
elements, beliefs are humanly created and produced. They are collective
social agreements produced during interaction and reified over time.
What is "true" or "factual" for a given people is
what they collectively agree to be true at that point in time.
- Beliefs can and do change,
especially in modern industrial societies. Today we laugh at things our
grandparents used to believe and chances are that our grandchildren will
laugh at many of our beliefs as well.
- This suggests that their is
no absolute knowledge or absolute truth. All knowledge and truth is
relative.
- Ideologies are integrated and connected systems of
beliefs. Sets of beliefs and assumptions connected by a common theme or
focus. They are often are associated with specific social institutions or
systems and serve to legitimize those systems.
- Some prominent American
ideologies.
- Capitalism.
- Christianity
(Protestantism).
- Individualism
- Scientism
- Sexism.
- Racism.
- Ideologies are, themselves,
often related and connected to each other in complex ideological
systems, such that one ideology "makes sense" when considered
with another. They also often serve to legitimize each other. Religious
ideologies often encompass or subsume many of a culture's ideologies,
giving them added legitimacy.
- However, it is also possible
for a culture to hold ideologies that are conflicting and contradictory.
- The relationship between beliefs and values.
- Social Collectives.
- Social collectives such as groups, organizations,
communities, institutions, classes, and societies are also collectively
produced symbolic social constructions.
- Social collectives are
symbolic entities. They are defined into existence when people define
themselves as a group or are defined as a group by others. They can and
do become reified over time, such that they are seen and treated as real
objective entities. However, they remain fundamentally symbolic entities
and as such can be renegotiated and redefined.
- The symbolic nature of social
collectives means that they are typically justified and maintained by
ideological systems and ritualistic behavior.
- Although symbolic entities, social collectives have a
real impact on our lives.
- Collectives as contexts for
interaction.
- Collectives and local
cultures.
- Collectives, status, roles,
identity, and the self.
- Statuses and Roles.
- Status, although related, is not a measure of a
persons wealth, power, and prestige. To speak of "high" or
"low" status is somewhat misleading. A status is a slot or
position within a group or society. They tell us who people are and how
they "fit" into the group.
- Status and group membership.
- Statuses as collective social
agreements that become reified over time, but which can and do change.
- Society as a network of
inter-related statuses.
- The multiplicity of statuses
filled by individuals in modern societies.
- Ascribed and achieved
statuses.
- Master statuses--age, sex,
race, class.
- Status, prestige, wealth, and
power.
- Status inconsistency.
- Roles are norms specifying the rights and
responsibilities associated with a particular status. The term role is
often used to mean both a position in society and role expectations
associated with it.
- Roles define what a person in
a given status can and should do, as well as what they can and should
expect from others. Roles provide a degree of stability and
predictability, telling how we should respond to others and giving us an
idea of how others should respond to us.
- Roles are negotiated and
produced during interaction, and often become reified over time.
However, roles can be renegotiated and changed.
- Role set, role strain, role
conflict, and role transition.
- Roles, identity, and the
self.
- Cultural Integration.
- Cultural integration refers to how interconnected,
complimentary, and mutually supportive the various elements of culture
are.
- Diversity, complexity, and integration.
- Variation within modern mass cultures.
- Diversity in historical and
cultural traditions.
- Subcultures.
- Counter-cultures.
- Local cultures.
- The mass media and cultural integration.
- The relationship between beliefs, values, norms, and
behavior.
- The traditional deterministic
view.
- The culture as resource view.
The Difference Between
Culture and Civilization
A culture
ordinarily exists within a civilization. In this regard, each civilization can
contain not only one but several cultures. Comparing culture and civilization
is like showing the difference between language and the country to which it is
being used.
Culture can exist in
itself whereas civilization cannot be called a civilization if it does not
possess a certain culture. It’s just like asking how a nation can exist on its
own without the use of a medium of communication. Hence, a civilization will
become empty if it does not have its culture, no matter how little it is.
Culture can be something
that is tangible and it can also be something that isn’t. Culture can become a
physical material if it is a product of the beliefs, customs and practices of a
certain people with a definite culture. But a civilization is something that
can be seen as a whole and it is more or less tangible although its basic
components, like culture, can be immaterial.
Culture can be learned
and in the same manner it can also be transmitted from one generation to the
next. Using a medium of speech and communication, it is possible for a certain
type of culture to evolve and even be inherited by another group of people. On
the other hand, civilization cannot be transferred by mere language alone.
Because of its complexity and magnitude, you need to transfer all of the raw
aggregates of a civilization for it to be entirely passed on. It just grows,
degrades and may eventually end if all its subunits will fail.
The Definition of Culture According to Experts
1. Edward B. Taylor
Culture is a complex
whole, the knowledge contained therein, belief, art, morals, law, indigenous
customs, and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of the community.
2. M. Jacobs and B.J.
Stern
Culture includes all
forms of technology that includes social, ideological, religious, and arts and
objects, all of which is the social heritage.
3. Koentjaraningrat
Culture is a whole
system of ideas, actions, and the work of humans in the context of community
life that's self-made man with relajar.
4. Dr. K. Kupper
Culture is a system of
ideas that guide and driver for humans in attitude and behavior, either
individually or in groups.
5. William H. Haviland
Culture is a set of
rules and norms shared by members of the community, which if carried out by its
members will bear behavior that is deemed feasible and can be accepted by all
societies.
6. Ki Hajar Dewantara
Culture means the fruit
of the human mind is the result of mankind's struggle against two powerful
influences, namely the age and nature which is a testament to the triumph of
human life to overcome the obstacles and hardships in life and livelihood in
order to achieve salvation and happiness that the birth is orderly and
peaceful.
7. Francis Merrill
• The patterns of
behavior generated by social interaction
• All behavior and all
products produced by someone as a member of a society that is found through
symbolic interaction.
8. Bounded et.al
Culture is something
that is formed by the development and transmission of human beliefs through
certain symbols, such as language symbols as a series of symbols used to shift
the cultural beliefs among members of a society. The messages about the culture
that is expected can be found in the media, government, religious institutions,
educational systems and the like.
9. Mitchell (Dictionary
of Soriblogy)
Culture is a partial
repetition of action or the whole of human activity and human-generated
products that have been popular in the community socially and not simply
transferred genetikal.
10. Robert H. Lowie
Culture is everything
that is received by the individual from society, including beliefs, customs,
artistic norms, eating habits, a skill that was obtained was not of his own
creativity, but a legacy of the past which can be through formal or informal.
11. Archaeologists R.
Seokmono
Culture is the result of
human effort, either an object or just a fruit of thought and in life.
Culture is a set of rules
and norms shared by members of the community, which if carried out by its
members will bear behavior that is deemed feasible and can be accepted by all
societies.
The Meaning of Culture
Culture is a modern concept based on a term first used
in classical antiquity by the Roman orator,Cicero: "cultura
animi". The term "culture" appeared first
in its current sense in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, to connote a
process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture.
In the 19th century, the term developed to refer first to the betterment or
refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to
the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-19th
century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a
universal human capacity. For the German nonpositivist sociologist Georg
Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the
agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of
history".
In the 20th century, "culture" emerged as a
central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of human phenomena
that cannot be attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically, the term
"culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved
human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to
act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living
in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences,
and acted creatively.
A
distinction is current between the physical artifacts created by a society,
its so-called material culture and everything else, the
intangibles such as language, customs, etc. that are the main referent of the
term "culture".
The Meaning of Interaction
Interaction is a kind of action that
occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a
two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a
one-way causal effect. A closely related term is interconnectivity, which deals
with the interactions of interactions within systems: combinations of many
simple interactions can lead to surprising emergent phenomena. Interaction has
different tailored meanings in various sciences.
Casual examples of interaction
outside of science include:
- Communication
of any sort, for example two or more people talking to each other, or
communication among groups, organizations, nations or states: trade, migration,
foreign relations, transportation,
- The
feedback during the operation of machines such as a computer or tool, for
example the interaction between a driver and the position of his or her car on
the road: by steering the driver influences this position, by observation this
information returns to the driver.
Example
of Cultural Interaction
Language is a cultural
component. While some cultural communities use English, others,speak Spanish,
Japanese, Arabic, or another of the thousands of languages spoken today.
Religion is another cultural component, and there are hundreds (if not
thousands) of ways that different culture groups practice and are characterized
by that trait. Likewise, there is a world of cultural differences with respect
to technology and medicine, economic and agricultural activity, and modes of
architecture and transportation. Moreover, cultural
communities may differ in their dress, grooming, music, cuisine,
dance, sport, etiquette, and other cultural components, all of which make for a
culturally diverse world.
Bibliography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture