Sabtu, 27 Oktober 2012

CULTURAL INTERACTION

www.gunadarma.ac.id
Name : Liska Nurwulansari
NPM   : 12609804
Class  : 4SA02

The Elements of Culture
  1. Language.
    1. Language is a set of symbols used to assign and communicate meaning. It enables us to name or label the things in our world so we can think and communicate about them.
    2. Language as a social product.
    3. Language, communication and interaction.
    4. Language, cognition, and reality.
    5. Language and culture.
  1. Norms.
    1. Norms as humanly created rules for behavior.
      1. The production of norms.
        1. The need for orderly, stable, predictable interactions.
        2. The role of power in the production of norms.
      2. The reification of norms.
      3. Renegotiating and changing norms.
    2. Types of norms.
      1. Folkways.
      2. Mores.
      3. Taboos.
      4. Rituals.
    1. Social Control.
      1. Internal social control.
        1. Socialization and the internalization of norms.
        2. Ideologies, beliefs, and values.
      1. External social control.
        1. Informal sanctions.
          1. Physical and verbal reactions.
          2. Embarrassment and stigma.
          3. Avoidance and ostracization.
          4. The importance of informal sanctions in small groups and organizations.
        2. Formal sanctions.
          1. Formal sanctions in large organizations.
          2. Governments, laws, and police.
          3. Courts, hearings, trials, and punishments.
    1. Theories of deviance.
      1. Deviance as functional.
      2. Social disorganization and anomie.
      3. Control theory.
      4. Structural strain theory.
      5. Marxist theories.
      6. Value conflict theory.
      7. The social construction of deviance.
      8. Labeling theory.
      9. Cultural transmission and differential association. 
  1. Values.
    1. Values are anything members of a culture aspire to or hold in high esteem. Values are things to be achieved, things considered of great worth or value.
      1. Values are human creations. They are social products.
      2. Values can and do become reified.
      3. Values can be renegotiated and changed. 
    1. While people and groups may disagree as to which are most important, Americans generally value the following. 
      1. Democracy, liberty, freedom, independence, autonomy, and individual rights.
      2. Capitalism, competition, hard work, self-discipline, and success.
      3. Wealth, prosperity, materialism, and consumerism.
      4. Equity, fairness, and justice.
      5. Equality of opportunity.
      6. Love, compassion, humanitarianism, charity, service, and respect for others.
      7. Tolerance, forgiveness, and acceptance.
      8. Faith, religion, family, conformity, and tradition.
      9. Nationalism, patriotism, civic responsibility, and loyalty.
      10. Health, happiness, and life.
      11. Education, knowledge, science, technology, and innovation.
    1. Complimentary and conflicting values.
      1. A groups values tend to compliment and support one another. They tend to be in agreement and make sense when considered together. A careful look at the values above reveals “sets” of values that seem to go together.
      2. However, it is also possible for values to contradict and conflict with each other, especially in complex modern industrial societies.  For example, competition and success can be seen as contradictory to humanitarianism, compassion, service and self-sacrafice; while equity and justice contradict forgiveness and conformity and tradition contradict tolerance and acceptance.  
      3. In fact, many social and political problems can be seen as conflicts between groups emphasizing different values.
    1. The relationship between norms and values.
  1. Beliefs and ideologies.
    1. Beliefs are the things members of a culture hold to be true. They are the "facts" accepted by all or most members. Beliefs are not limited to religious statements, but include all the things a people know and accept as true, including common sense everyday knowledge.
      1. Like all other cultural elements, beliefs are humanly created and produced. They are collective social agreements produced during interaction and reified over time. What is "true" or "factual" for a given people is what they collectively agree to be true at that point in time.
      2. Beliefs can and do change, especially in modern industrial societies. Today we laugh at things our grandparents used to believe and chances are that our grandchildren will laugh at many of our beliefs as well.
      3. This suggests that their is no absolute knowledge or absolute truth. All knowledge and truth is relative.
    2. Ideologies are integrated and connected systems of beliefs. Sets of beliefs and assumptions connected by a common theme or focus. They are often are associated with specific social institutions or systems and serve to legitimize those systems.
      1. Some prominent American ideologies.
        1. Capitalism.
        2. Christianity (Protestantism).
        3. Individualism
        4. Scientism
        5. Sexism.
        6. Racism.
      2. Ideologies are, themselves, often related and connected to each other in complex ideological systems, such that one ideology "makes sense" when considered with another. They also often serve to legitimize each other. Religious ideologies often encompass or subsume many of a culture's ideologies, giving them added legitimacy.
      3. However, it is also possible for a culture to hold ideologies that are conflicting and contradictory.
    1. The relationship between beliefs and values.
  1. Social Collectives.
    1. Social collectives such as groups, organizations, communities, institutions, classes, and societies are also collectively produced symbolic social constructions.
      1. Social collectives are symbolic entities. They are defined into existence when people define themselves as a group or are defined as a group by others. They can and do become reified over time, such that they are seen and treated as real objective entities. However, they remain fundamentally symbolic entities and as such can be renegotiated and redefined.
      2. The symbolic nature of social collectives means that they are typically justified and maintained by ideological systems and ritualistic behavior.
    2. Although symbolic entities, social collectives have a real impact on our lives.
      1. Collectives as contexts for interaction.
      2. Collectives and local cultures.
      3. Collectives, status, roles, identity, and the self. 
  1. Statuses and Roles.
    1. Status, although related, is not a measure of a persons wealth, power, and prestige. To speak of "high" or "low" status is somewhat misleading. A status is a slot or position within a group or society. They tell us who people are and how they "fit" into the group.
      1. Status and group membership.
      2. Statuses as collective social agreements that become reified over time, but which can and do change.
      3. Society as a network of inter-related statuses.
      4. The multiplicity of statuses filled by individuals in modern societies.
      5. Ascribed and achieved statuses.
      6. Master statuses--age, sex, race, class.
      7. Status, prestige, wealth, and power.
      8. Status inconsistency.
    1. Roles are norms specifying the rights and responsibilities associated with a particular status. The term role is often used to mean both a position in society and role expectations associated with it.
      1. Roles define what a person in a given status can and should do, as well as what they can and should expect from others. Roles provide a degree of stability and predictability, telling how we should respond to others and giving us an idea of how others should respond to us.
      2. Roles are negotiated and produced during interaction, and often become reified over time. However, roles can be renegotiated and changed.
      3. Role set, role strain, role conflict, and role transition.
      4. Roles, identity, and the self. 
  1. Cultural Integration.
    1. Cultural integration refers to how interconnected, complimentary, and mutually supportive the various elements of culture are.
    2. Diversity, complexity, and integration.
    3. Variation within modern mass cultures.
      1. Diversity in historical and cultural traditions.
      2. Subcultures.
      3. Counter-cultures.
      4. Local cultures.
    4. The mass media and cultural integration.
    5. The relationship between beliefs, values, norms, and behavior.
      1. The traditional deterministic view.
      2. The culture as resource view.

The Difference Between Culture and Civilization

 A culture ordinarily exists within a civilization. In this regard, each civilization can contain not only one but several cultures. Comparing culture and civilization is like showing the difference between language and the country to which it is being used.
Culture can exist in itself whereas civilization cannot be called a civilization if it does not possess a certain culture. It’s just like asking how a nation can exist on its own without the use of a medium of communication. Hence, a civilization will become empty if it does not have its culture, no matter how little it is.
Culture can be something that is tangible and it can also be something that isn’t. Culture can become a physical material if it is a product of the beliefs, customs and practices of a certain people with a definite culture. But a civilization is something that can be seen as a whole and it is more or less tangible although its basic components, like culture, can be immaterial.
Culture can be learned and in the same manner it can also be transmitted from one generation to the next. Using a medium of speech and communication, it is possible for a certain type of culture to evolve and even be inherited by another group of people. On the other hand, civilization cannot be transferred by mere language alone. Because of its complexity and magnitude, you need to transfer all of the raw aggregates of a civilization for it to be entirely passed on. It just grows, degrades and may eventually end if all its subunits will fail.

The Definition of Culture According to Experts

1. Edward B. Taylor
Culture is a complex whole, the knowledge contained therein, belief, art, morals, law, indigenous customs, and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of the community.

2. M. Jacobs and B.J. Stern
Culture includes all forms of technology that includes social, ideological, religious, and arts and objects, all of which is the social heritage.

3. Koentjaraningrat
Culture is a whole system of ideas, actions, and the work of humans in the context of community life that's self-made man with relajar.

4. Dr. K. Kupper
Culture is a system of ideas that guide and driver for humans in attitude and behavior, either individually or in groups.

5. William H. Haviland
Culture is a set of rules and norms shared by members of the community, which if carried out by its members will bear behavior that is deemed feasible and can be accepted by all societies.

6. Ki Hajar Dewantara
Culture means the fruit of the human mind is the result of mankind's struggle against two powerful influences, namely the age and nature which is a testament to the triumph of human life to overcome the obstacles and hardships in life and livelihood in order to achieve salvation and happiness that the birth is orderly and peaceful.

7. Francis Merrill
• The patterns of behavior generated by social interaction
• All behavior and all products produced by someone as a member of a society that is found through symbolic interaction.

8. Bounded et.al
Culture is something that is formed by the development and transmission of human beliefs through certain symbols, such as language symbols as a series of symbols used to shift the cultural beliefs among members of a society. The messages about the culture that is expected can be found in the media, government, religious institutions, educational systems and the like.


9. Mitchell (Dictionary of Soriblogy)
Culture is a partial repetition of action or the whole of human activity and human-generated products that have been popular in the community socially and not simply transferred genetikal.

10. Robert H. Lowie
Culture is everything that is received by the individual from society, including beliefs, customs, artistic norms, eating habits, a skill that was obtained was not of his own creativity, but a legacy of the past which can be through formal or informal.

11. Archaeologists R. Seokmono
Culture is the result of human effort, either an object or just a fruit of thought and in life.
Culture is a set of rules and norms shared by members of the community, which if carried out by its members will bear behavior that is deemed feasible and can be accepted by all societies.


The Meaning of Culture
Culture is a modern concept based on a term first used in classical antiquity by the Roman orator,Cicero: "cultura animi". The term "culture" appeared first in its current sense in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, to connote a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the 19th century, the term developed to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-19th century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a universal human capacity. For the German nonpositivist sociologist Georg Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history".
In the 20th century, "culture" emerged as a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of human phenomena that cannot be attributed to genetic inheritance. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings: (1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively.
A distinction is current between the physical artifacts created by a society, its so-called material culture and everything else, the intangibles such as language, customs, etc. that are the main referent of the term "culture".

The Meaning of Interaction
Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect. A closely related term is interconnectivity, which deals with the interactions of interactions within systems: combinations of many simple interactions can lead to surprising emergent phenomena. Interaction has different tailored meanings in various sciences.
Casual examples of interaction outside of science include:
-          Communication of any sort, for example two or more people talking to each other, or communication among groups, organizations, nations or states: trade, migration, foreign relations, transportation,
-          The feedback during the operation of machines such as a computer or tool, for example the interaction between a driver and the position of his or her car on the road: by steering the driver influences this position, by observation this information returns to the driver.

Example of Cultural Interaction

                  Language is a cultural component. While some cultural communities use English, others,speak Spanish, Japanese, Arabic, or another of the thousands of languages spoken today. Religion is another cultural component, and there are hundreds (if not thousands) of ways that different culture groups practice and are characterized by that trait. Likewise, there is a world of cultural differences with respect to technology and medicine, economic and agricultural activity, and modes of architecture and transportation. Moreover, cultural communities may differ in their dress, grooming, music, cuisine, dance, sport, etiquette, and other cultural components, all of which make for a culturally diverse world.

Bibliography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture